Is the Shroud of Turin Really Christ's Burial Cloth? Page 3
C. WHAT ARE THE
HISTORIES OF THE SHROUD AND OF THE SUDARIUM?
The Shroud is brought from Jerusalem to
Edessa (30?), then disappears (50s AD). The earliest historical records that relate to
Jesus’ shroud after the Gospel records come from Eusebius, bishop of Caesarea
(315–c.340),184 who in his church history records how Abgar
(V, 13–50 AD), king of the city and realm of Edessa, suffered terribly in
his body; and when hearing of Jesus’ healing miracles, he wrote a letter to him
asking if he could come to Edessa and heal him, because he believed that he was
God come down from heaven or a Son of God. (Edessa, now called Urfa, lies in southeastern
Turkey, across the border from Syria, although earlier it was the
Syrian-speaking center of Christianity.185) Eusebius quotes in full two
letters kept in the Edessa city archives, one from Abgar to Jesus and the
second Jesus’ reply, which explained, “I must first complete here all for which
I was sent” and then “be taken up to him who sent me,” but afterward “I will
send to you one of my disciples to heal your suffering, and give life to you
and those with you.”
Then an appended document explains how, after Jesus’ death, the apostles
sent Thaddaeus (Addai in Syriac), one of the Seventy whom Jesus had sent out to
proclaim that the kingdom of God had come (Luke 10:1ff), to Edessa to fulfill
Jesus’ promise. When
Thaddaeus entered the room where the king was, Abgar saw “a great vision” on his
face, and when Thaddaeus placed his hand on Abgar, the king was healed; and
healing and salvation came to many others in Edessa (Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History 1.13). Abgar spoke Syriac, very similar
to the Aramaic that Jesus and his disciples spoke.186 Later, another important document, “Story of the Image
of Edessa,” compiled the year after this Edessa cloth was transferred to Constantinople
(945) and drawing from older records, adds to this story.187 This record explains that Abgar suffered from chronic
arthritis and black leprosy which severely disfigured him and left him in
constant pain. Thaddaeus
brought with him an image of Jesus—although the text here is unclear how
it came into being.
One rumor held that Jesus wiped his face on a towel, which he intended
to send to Abgar, while another rumor held that the cloth imprint was made when
Jesus wiped sweat from his brow with a towel in the Garden of Gethsemane.188 Probably Thaddaeus felt it wise to keep the cloth’s
true nature (a contaminated, bloody burial sheet) a secret. Still, when Thaddaeus came
into Abgar’s presence and held “the portrait” of Jesus up to his forehead, Abgar
saw a bright light emanating from it; then he got up from his bed and began
running around.189 Obviously, some of the details of
this story are uncertain; and probably Thaddaeus had folded the burial cloth so
that only the face of Jesus was visible (Wilson).190 Interestingly, the Acts
of Thaddaeus (sixth or early seventh century) calls the Edessa cloth a tetradiplon (a “[cloth] doubled in
four”), pointing to a folded cloth;
and even the “Story of the Image of Edessa” in one place specifically refers to
it as a sindon (burial cloth).191
However, when Abgar V’s
son (Abgar VI) came to the throne (50 AD), he reverted to paganism and began
persecuting Christians, at which time the Jesus-imprinted cloth disappeared,
for nearly 500 years.192 Edessa’s bishop saved
the Image of Edessa by sealing the cloth secretly in a niche above one of the
city’s gates.193 Later, on the world stage Emperor
Constantine would become the champion of Christianity (senior ruler 312 on);
and breaking with the old traditions of Rome, he moved his capital to Byzantium
(present-day Istanbul), which he rebuilt and renamed Constantinople (330), the
new capital of the Roman Empire.194 By the
end of the fourth century (395), the Roman Empire had become divided between
the Eastern Roman Empire, based in Constantinople, and the Western Roman Empire,
based in Rome and Ravenna; then later after the Western Empire fell (476), the
Eastern Empire survived alone, known as the Byzantine Empire.195
The Shroud is rediscovered (shortly
after 525?), then finds a home in Constantinople (944). After Edessa suffered major
destruction from a serious flood (525)—which killed 30,000
residents—major rebuilding of the city and reconstruction of the walls
ensued; and this most likely was when the Image of Edessa was rediscovered. At least, it was reported several
decades later (544) that an attack by the Persians on Edessa was repelled by
the miraculous powers of the Jesus-implanted cloth.196 Evargrius, a schoolboy at the time, reported how when
the Edessa cloth was brought into a tunnel the Persians were digging to enter
the city, the timbers burst into flame, repelling the enemy soldiers (Evargrius, Ecclesiastical Hiistory). Here he specifically refers
to the cloth image in Greek as acheiropoietos, “not made by human hand.”197
But is this cloth of
Edessa the same as the Shroud of Turin? Early images of Jesus (from the third century
on) usually depict him a young, beardless, short-haired youth,198 as
seen, e.g., on a fifth century sarcophagus (stone coffin) in the Istanbul
Museum199–or in Jesus
the Good Shepherd, an early painting in the Roman catacombs. Yet, French Shroud investigator Paul Vignon, even at
the beginning of the twentieth century, pointed out that in Byzantine images in
the sixth century a new image of Jesus’ face appears, strikingly like that
found on the Shroud of Turin.
Vignon noted carry-over facial features such as: owlish staring eyes, a
forked beard, two strands of hair falling down from the part, a raised right
eyebrow, and so on200—which can be seen in: Christ Pantocrator (“Ruler of the
Universe”), an icon from St. Catherine’s Monastery in the Sinai, sixth century;201 Jesus’ portrait in a mosaic from an unidentified location in Şanliurfa
(Edessa), sixth century;202 Christ Pantocrator, a portrait on a
silver vase found in Homs, Syria, c. 600;203 Christ’s portrait on a
gold solidus coin issued under
Justinian II, c. 692;204 and Christ Pantocrator, from a wall
painting in the St. Ponziano catacomb in Rome, seventh century.205 In fact, according to manuscripts recently discovered
in St. Catherine’s monastery, in the 540s Syrian-speaking monks left Edessa,
carrying with them and disseminating an image of Jesus as depicted on the Shroud.206
Figures 13, 14 and 15 – Jesus the Good Shepherd, an early catacomb image, Rome. The first images of Jesus pictured him as a youth with short hair. However, after the full image of the Shroud of Turin was discovered in the 6th century, depictions of Jesus dramatically changed, as can be seen in Christ Pantocrator (Ruler of the Universe), portrayed in St. Catherine’s Monastery in the Sinai, fresco, 6th century, and portrayed in the Church of Daphne, Athens, fresco, 1090-1111.
Then the Byzantine
emperor Romanus sent a large army to Edessa (943) to claim the Jesus-imprinted
cloth for himself.207 Since Edessa had come under Arab
control, he finally gained his prize when his general (John Curcuas) offered to
leave Edessa unharmed, to pay 12,000 silver crowns, and to release 200
high-ranking Muslim prisoners, in exchange for the Edessa cloth.208 So, the treasure was brought to Constantinople (944),
received with great celebrations, and stored in the Pharos Chapel in Constantine’s
imperial palace, which contained other relics of Jesus. Although the Edessa cloth
was not publically displayed, high-ranking Western visitors were shown the treasures
of the relic collection from time to time. The move of the Edessa cloth to Constantinople
was fortuitous, because shortly thereafter Edessa fell to invading Turkish
Muslims (1146), who killed or enslaved most of its population and reduced the
city and its churches to ruin.209
It is important to note
that at the end of this period a number of individuals left records of seeing
the Edessa relic, describing it not as a small cloth containing only Jesus’
face but as a much larger cloth which had Jesus’ whole body imprinted upon
it. Apparently for the
first time since it had left Jerusalem, sometime in the eleventh century, the
wooden frame which encased the Edessa cloth was removed, the cloth was
unfolded, and its full image was revealed.210 For example, the English monk Orderic Vitalis, after visiting
Constantinople, describes (c. 1130) how he saw the cloth of Edessa which
contained not only the face of Jesus, but “displayed to those who gazed on it
the likeness and proportions of the body of the Lord.”211 A Vatican Library codex (number 5696, folio 35; twelfth
century) contains a version of Christ’s letter to Abgar which reads, “If indeed
you desire to look bodily upon my face, I send you a cloth on which know that
the image not only of my face, but of my whole body had been divinely transformed.”212 When Amaury I, king of Jerusalem, visited
Constantinople (1171), William of Tyre afterward described how the palace’s
‘most secret rooms’ had been opened to the king, so that he saw among other
relics Christ’s sindon (burial
shroud).213 Of course, during this time the
Hungarian Pray Manuscript was illustrated (c. 1192), the artist displaying a
knowledge of the full Shroud image, portraying a totally naked Jesus with his
hands crossed over his genitals, and showing his empty burial cloth with the
mysterious “poker holes” visible on it.214 Then
Nicholas Mesarites, Greek keeper of the relic collection in the Pharos Chapel
in Constantinople, had to defend the chapel from a mob engaged in a palace
revolution (1201); and he pleaded with them for the sanctity of the place, for
“In this chapel Christ rises again, and the sindon . . . which wrapped the
mysterious, naked body [of Jesus] after the Passion . . .”215 This reference to Christ and his shroud ‘rising again’
is repeated in a slightly later account (1203-04) written by the Frenchman
Robert de Clari, who witnessed that in Constantinople “there was another of the
churches which they called My Lady St. Mary of Blachernae, where was kept the sydoine [French] in which Our Lord had
been wrapped, which stood up straight every Friday so that the figure of Our
Lord could be plainly seen there . . .”216 The
Church of St. Mary in the district of Blachernae was where people in the city of
Constantinople rallied in times of crisis, and the Shroud had apparently been
moved here.217 In any case, there can be little
doubt that the Edessa cloth was one and the same as the Shroud of Turin.
The Shroud is taken by Knights
Templar (1205), then later surfaces in France where it is owned and displayed
by the de Carney family (1355 on) and then the Savoy family (1453 on). Robert de Clari (see
paragraph above) was actually part of an army that had been assembled by Pope
Innocent III, mostly with knights from France, to mount the Fourth Crusade with
the aim of attacking Egypt, then the center of Muslim power. However, the Venetians,
whose navy was to transport the knights, persuaded them first to go to
Constantinople, to restore a deposed Byzantine emperor to the throne and thus
enhance Venetian trade in the east. As Wilson explains, the crusaders were at first
welcomed into Constantinople; but being rough and vulgar in their manners and
ill-disciplined and unwashed, they found themselves rubbing shoulders with
highly cultured Greeks whose perfumes and jewels struck them as decadent and
effeminate. Neither
side liked what they saw; and when the restored emperor was unable to raise the
money through taxation to pay the crusaders what he had promised, the scene
turned ugly. The
crusaders set about to destroy the city’s monuments and art works, slaughter
the city’s residents, burn down a great part of the city, and carry off its
movable wealth. It
took only three days for Constantinople, the queen of cities, to be wrecked in
a manner from which it would never fully recover.218 And at this time the Shroud disappeared.219 However, a letter sent to Pope Innocent III (1205)
reported that the shroud had been taken to Athens, then under the command of
the Crusader leader Otho de la Roche. Little is known about the Shroud during the
period that follows, although about eighty years later a Vatican
document—discovered recently by Templar researcher Barbara
Frale—offers an account by a young man named Arnaut Sabbatier of his induction
into the Order of the Knights Templar (1287) in southern France. Here he explains how he was
taken to ‘a secret place to which only brothers of the Temple had access,’ where
he was shown ‘a long linen cloth on which was imprinted the figure of a man,’
whose feet he was told to kiss three times—and historians read this as a reference
to the Shroud of Turin.220 Two decades later,
King Philip the Fair of France ordered that every Knight Templar be arrested on
charges of heresy (1307) as it was rumored that they were kissing and
worshipping a mysterious bearded figure (as an idol) at secret chapter meetings
(1307); and at this time many Knights were tortured and killed.221
Later, the Shroud
resurfaces in the possession of Geoffrey I de Charny, who asks permission from
Pope Clement VI to build a collegiate church in the tiny village of Lirey (in
eastern France) where ‘the true shroud of Jesus’ could be exhibited (1349); and
indeed here it is given its first known public showing in Europe (1355).222 This Geoffrey may have been related in some way to a
Knight Templar by the same name (but spelled differently: Geoffrey de Charnay)
who earlier was burned at the stake (1314)—although the latter Geoffrey
never disclosed how he obtained the cloth.223 When he died, the Shroud passed to his daughter
Margaret de Charny (1398), who later, elderly and still childless, exchanged the
relic for a castle and estate to the Savoy family (1453), who would possess the
cloth for the next five hundred years.224 The
Savoys housed the Shroud in a new “permanent home,” the Sainte Chapelle (“Holy
Chapel”), specially built for it at Chambéry, in southeastern France (1502). After a fire broke out there
and damaged the cloth, along with water poured on it (1532), Poor Clare nuns repaired
the Shroud, sewing a supportive backing onto it (1534). Fortunately the central
image of Jesus had been left undamaged.
The Shroud finds a final home in the Turin Cathedral (1578 to present). The Shroud was moved to
Turin (then located in Savoy-owned land) so that the saintly Cardinal Charles
Borromeo would not have to cross the Alps to venerate it; and at this time it
was also publically displayed (1578), to crowds numbering 40,000.225 The cloth was placed in a special chapel constructed
for it between the royal palace and the cathedral in Turin (1694). Thereafter, it was often
publically displayed to celebrate marriages in the Savoy family.226 At a public showing of the Shroud held to honor the
Savoy family’s fiftieth anniversary rule of all Italy (1898), the cloth was
first photographed by Secondo Pia, revealing the photographic negative’s
extraordinarily lifelike portrait. Paris anatomist Yves Delage declared that the
Shroud image was so medically accurate that it must have wrapped a real,
crucified human body, probably that of Jesus (1902). At another showing (1931), Giuseppe Enrie took
better black-and-white photos, that would become the definitive images for the
next half-century.
With the outbreak of World War II, the Shroud was secretly moved to the
Benedictine Abbey of Montevergine in southern Italy (1939), where only four monks
knew what they were guarding.
When the war was finished, the Italian people voted to end the Savoy
rule and form a republic (1946).227 The
Shroud was returned to the Turin Cathedral. One night someone climbed down through the
Shroud Chapel roof and tried unsuccessfully to set fire to the Shroud
(1972). After another
public showing of the cloth (1978), researchers connected to STURP were granted
five days and five nights nonstop, between October 8–13, to study,
photograph, and take (noninvasive) samples from the Shroud. When Umberto II of Savoy
died (1983), the Shroud was bequeathed to the Pope and the Catholic
Church. A sample from a corner of the Shroud was taken and cut
into three parts for three laboratories to do carbon-14 dating (1988), which
produced a date for the Shroud between 1260–1390—although this
dating would be later widely disputed. An arsonist started another fire (1997), but the
cloth was moved safely to a secret location. The next year restoration was done on the Shroud
by Mechthild Flury-Lemberg, and it was placed in a new protective conservation
case. At the next
showing (2000), a million and a half visitors came to Turin to see the Shroud.228 Flury-Lemberg did additional restoration work on the
Shroud (2002), removing the 1532 backing cloth and patches, and stretching
wrinkles out from the cloth.
A multi-section, very high resolution digital photograph was taken of
the Shroud (2008).
History of the Sudarium. Early
records of Jesus’ face-cloth in Palestine. The first historical mention of the Sudarium
outside the Bible comes from Nonnus of Panopolis (Egypt) in the early fifth
century, who added his paraphrase to the Gospel of John 20:7, noting that Peter
saw “the cloth that covered his [Jesus’] head, with a knot toward the upper
back of the part that had covered his hair. In the native language of Syria it is called
sudarium.” Scientists would later confirm that this
is exactly how this head cloth must have been placed on Jesus’ head.229 Then a chronicle called San Antonino Mártir, written by an anonymous Italian pilgrim to the
Holy Land in 570 AD, mentions a cave close to the Monastery of St. Mark on the eastern
side of the Jordan River, where seven nuns living in seven cells told him that
they “looked after the sudarium of Christ.”230
The face-cloth comes to Spain. Early manuscripts agree that when the Persians
invaded Jerusalem (614 AD) the Sudarium was taken by sea to North Africa (probably
Alexandria) and then on to Spain, first landing at Cartagena on the southeastern
coast, from where it was taken to Seville and placed in the custody of the Latin
Church Father Isidore (c.560–636). Then after his death, it
was moved to Toledo (657), the most important Christian city in Spain.231 However, when the Muslims invaded Spain (711),
Christians fled to the north taking with them the “chest of God,” containing
the Sudarium and other relics—which then were hidden away in the Asturias
mountains.232 Later the Arca Santa (“Holy Chest”) was moved secretly to the simple
Monastery of San Vicene (761), then placed in the church of San Salvador (“Holy
Saviour”) in Oviedo (812) after its construction.233 Ambrosio de Morales, commissioned and sent by King
Philip II to inventory the sacred chest’s contents (1765), first described the
Sudarium in modern times.234 Although the Holy Chamber where the Sacred Chest was kept was
almost completely destroyed by a dynamite explosion (1934), during a period of
national revolution,235 the Sudarium survived undamaged.236 The Italian priest Guilio Ricci, a Shroud expert, later
sought out the Sudarium (1965) to study it, and then published his findings. However, it was only
after the Spanish Center of Sindonology was founded (1987) that scientific
research began in earnest on the Sudarium. Later, the First International Congress on the
Sudarium was convened in Oviedo (1994), and a report on the current findings was
published in Spanish (1996).237
Conclusion. William Meacham wrote, “The Shroud is
either the most awesome and instructive relic of Jesus Christ in existence . .
. or it is one of the most ingenious, most unbelievably clever products of the
human mind and hand on record.”238 As Yves
Delage, an agnostic, declared more than century ago (1902), the characteristics
of the Shroud man form “a bundle of imposing probabilities” which point to the Shroud
man being Jesus as he is described at the end of the Gospels. His assistant Paul Vignon
would write (1902) that the Shroud points to Christ just “as sure as a
photograph or set of fingerprints,”239 and “No such impression on a
winding-sheet has ever been found in any [other] tomb, and we may add that it
is materially impossible that such a thing should be found.”240 It is clear that modern investigations of the Shroud
man image show an amazing correlation with what the Gospels describe as the
final suffering of Jesus of Nazareth—and in a way that was typical of
Roman crucifixions, and yet at the same time including very unusual details
(e.g., the victim being crowned with thorns, the wound in his side, his burial
in a very expensive shroud), as well as details that no medieval artist would
have depicted (e.g., a naked Jesus, the nail print in the wrist rather than in
the palm, and the accurate depiction of blood flows and separation which only
modern microscopic studies could confirm as being realistic). The 3:1 herringbone linen
cloth places this cloth in the Near East, while a peculiar stitching on one
area of the Shroud is found elsewhere only in cloth taken from Masada not far
from Jerusalem, between 40 BC–AD 70. The Shroud cloth seems measured in Assyrian
cubits, used in Jesus’ day.
Then 47 pollen species collected from the Shroud surface point to the
cloth coming from Jerusalem, while a lesser number point to it having spent
time in Edessa (15) and Constantinople (13) and then France and Italy (17). Many of these same pollens
species also were found on the Sudarium, the literary record of which traces
back to 5th–6th century witnesses in Jerusalem. Faint flower images found on the Shroud point to
perhaps 27 flower and plant species that grow only, all of them, in the
vicinity of Jerusalem—and in springtime, when Passover and Jesus’
crucifixion occurred.
Limestone particles point to the Shroud of Turin having been in one or
the other of the tombs (Garden Tomb or Holy Sepulcher) believed to be where
Jesus was buried, while coins placed on the Shroud man’s eyes match coins that
were minted during the reign of Pontius Pilate (29–31 AD). Of course, no absolute
proof will ever convince an athiest; yet, if all the scientific evidence was
presented in a court of law, in all probability a jury would vote in favor of this
identification being so, beyond a reasonable doubt.241
FOOTNOTES: 1. France, p. 1063. 2. Anonymous, “Relics in
Christianity,” online page 2; Anonymous, “Relics associated with Jesus,” online
page 3. 3. Anonymous,
“True Cross,” online p. 3.
4. STERA, http://www.shroud.com/booklist.htm. 5. Keener, pp. 1162–1163. 6. Zugibe 2005, pp. 173,
382. 7. Bennett, pp.
151–152. 8.
Ibid., p. 133. 9.
Ibid., p. 17. 10.
Ibid., p. 147. 11.
Ibid., p. 146. 12.
Wilcox, pp. 2, 305.
13. Zugibe 2005, p. 174. 14. Ibid., p. 185; Anonymous, “Secrets of the
Dead” DVD. 15.
Antonacci, p. 1 and Figure 1.
16. Ibid., p. 37; Zugibe 2005, p. 172. 17. Wilcox, pp. 2–3; Wilson 1998, plates
6–7 after p. 142.
18. Antonacci, pp. 97–98. 19. Wilson 2010, pp. 297–310. 20. Zugibe 2005, pp.
180–181. 21.
Ibid., p. 181. 22.
Ibid., p. 183, Figure 12–7. 23. Bennett, p. 67. 24. Ibid., pp. 28–29. 25. Ibid., p. 13. 26. Ibid., p. 68. 27. Ibid., p. 13. 28. Fanti 2005, online p.
3. 29. Ibid., online
p. 9. 30. Zugabi 2005,
pp. 189, 213. 31.
Ibid., pp. 190–191; Antonacci, p. 116. 32. Wilcox, p. 147. 33. Meacham, online p. 4. 34. Antonacci, p. 114. 35. Bennett, p. 294. 36. Antonacci, p. 114. 37. Anonymous, “Real Face
of Jesus?” DVD. 38.
Wilcox, pp. 3–5.
39. Antonacci, pp. 4–5. 40. Wilcox, p. 17. 41. Antonacci, p. 6. 42. Wilson 2010, pp. 21–22; Jackson 1977,
pp. 74–94; Jackson 1984, pp. 2247–2249; Antonacci, p. 7, Figures
4–5. 43.
Antonacci, p. 6. 44. STERA
online, http://www.shroud.com/78team.htm. 45. Wilson 2010, pp. 23, 308. 46. Antonacci, pp. 8,
12. 47. Ibid., pp.
10–11. 48.
Ibid., p. 8. 49.
Ibid., p. 9. 50. Cf.
Wilcox, p. 103; Wilson 2010, p. 176. 51. Wilson 1978, pp. 106ff; Meyers, passim. 52. Ibid., pp.
134–135. 53.
Noted in Zugabe 2005, pp. 240–241. 54. Heller, 1981, pp. 81–103; Zugibe 2005,
pp. 216–217; Wilson 2010, pp. 59–61. 55. Jumper, pp. 447–476. 56. Wilcox, p. 199; cf.
Zugibe 2005, pp. 177–179, 217. 57. Bollone, pp. 2–6. 58. Zugibe 2005, pp.
217–218. 59.
Meacham, online p. 17.
60. Anonymous, “Real Face of Jesus?” DVD. 61. Antonacci, pp. 61–62. 62. Ibid., pp.
73–74. 63.
Zugibe 2005, pp. 161–163. 64. Scavone, online pp. 1–4. 65. Antonacci, pp.
69–70. 66.
Ibid., p. 71. 67.
Zugibe 2005, p. 169.
68. Meacham, online p. 17. 69. Wilcox, pp. 134–137. 70. Antonacci, pp.
212–213. 71.
Ibid., pp. 213–214.
72. Ibid., p. 214; Wilson 1998, pp. 233–234. 73. Anonymous, “Real Face
of Jesus?” DVD. 74.
Antonacci, p. 223. 75.
Rogers, online pp. 1–2.
76. Jackson 1991, online pp. 12–15. 77. Ibid., online p. 4. 78. Whanger, pp.
766–772. 79.
Accetta, online pp. 3–4. 80. Anonymous, “Real Face of Jesus?” DVD. 81. Bennett, p. 168. 82. Rogers, online p. 4. 83. Fanti 2005, online p.
14. 84. Ibid., online
pp. 6, 9. 85. Alan
Whanger, in Lombatti, online p. 14. 86. Bennett, pp. 9, 213. 87. Ibid., p. 197. 88. Moreno, online pp.
1–17. 89.
Bennett, p. 70. 90.
Moreno, online pp. 4–5; Zugibe 2005, pp. 294–296. 91. Zugibe 2005, p.
298. 92. Evans, p.
806. 93. Cross, “Constantine
the Great,” p. 338.
94. Burke, pp. 828–829; Zugibe 2005, p. 55. 95. Zugibe 2005, p.
53. 96. Evans, p.
806. 97. Zugabi 2005,
pp. 19, 22, Figures 2–1, 2–4. 98. France, p. 1064. 99. Zugibe 2005, p. 41. 100. France, p. 1063. 101. Zugibe 2005, p.
58. 102. Ibid., p.
59. 103. Meacham,
online pp. 18–19.
104. Fanti 2005, online p. 13. 105. Moreno, online p. 7. 106. Antonacci, p.
115. 107. Ibid., p.
114. 108. Wilson 1978,
figures following p. 82.
109. Zugibe 2005, pp. 22, 180; Keener, p. 1119. 110. All Bible quotations
here are taken from the Revised Standard Version; capitalization is added here
and below in quotations.
111. Zugibe 2005, pp. 36–37. 112. Antonacci, p. 17. 113. Zugibe 2005, p. 179. 114. Ibid., p. 182, Figure
12–6; pp. 193, 95; Antonacci, p. 23, Figure 18. 115. Antonacci, p. 22. 116. Zugibe 2005, pp. 180, 46. 117. Ibid., p. 180. 118. Fanti 2005, online p.
13; cf. Antonacci, p. 20.
119. Keener, p. 1150.
120. Wilcox, pp. 18–19; Antonacci, p. 20. 121. Zugibe 2005, p.
135. 122. Antonacci,
p. 98. 123. Fanti
2005, online p. 12.
124. Bennett, p. 69.
125. Anonymous, “Real Face of Jesus?” DVD; for another view on this, see
Wilson 2010, p. 72.
126. Cf. Antonacci, pp. 261–262. 127. Quigley, p. 52. 128. Zugibe 2005, pp. 224–226. 129. Zugibe 1989, online
pp. 1, 5. 130.
Antonacci, p. 9. 131.
Meacham, online p. 10.
132. Wilson 1978, p. 251. 133. Ibid.; Antonacci, p. 98–99; Wilson
1978, fourth page of plates following p. 130. 134. Anonymous, “Secrets of the Dead” DVD;
Antonacci, p. 98; cf. Wilson 2010, p. 74. 135. Antonacci, p. 115. 136. Ibid., p. 99. 137. Zugibe 2005, p.
289. 138. Anonymous,
“Real Face of Jesus?” DVD; Wilson 2010, pp. 72–74. 139. Antonacci, p.
115. 140. Zugibe 2005,
pp. 283–285, and for pollen photo see Figure 17–1 on p. 28. 141. Zugibe 2005, p. 288;
Frei, pp. 3–7; Wilson 2010, pp. 62–64. 142. Antonacci, pp. 109–110. 143. Zugibe 2005, pp.
288–289, Wilson 2010, p. 65. 144. Danin, pp. 7, 9. 145. Antonacci, p. 112; Danin, p. 17. 146. Antonacci, p.
112. 147. Ibid., pp.
112–113. 148.
Iannone, online p. 2.
149. Zugibe 2005, pp. 197–198. 150. Danin, p. 16; and see flower/plant images,
Figures 8, 10–11, 14 and 17–19 on pp. 36–47. 151. Alan Whanger, in
Lombatti, online page 17.
152. Antonacci, pp. 109, 297; Levi-Setti, pp. 535–552. 153. Antonacci, pp. 118,
299. 154. Zugibe 2005,
pp. 234–236.
155. Ibid., p. 236.
156. Ibid., pp. 197–198, 236; for photos of the coin images see
Antonacci, p. 103, Figures 76–78, and Zugibe 2005, p. 235, Figures
15–5, 15–6.
157. Zugibe 2005, p.
236. 158. Alan Whanger, in Lombatti, online p. 4.
159. Bennett, p.
29. 160. Ibid., p. 14.
161. Ibid., pp.
22–23. 162.
Ibid., p. 21. 163.
Ibid., p. 69. 164.
Wilcox, p. 226. 165.
Bennett, p. 65. 166.
Moreno, online pp. 11–13. 167. Danin, p. 7. 168. Bennett, p. 65. 169. Damon, pp. 611–615. 170. Wilcox, pp.
195–196. 171. Zugibe 2005, p. 311. 172. Wilson 2010, pp.
72–73. 173.
Antonacci, p. 115.
174. Zugibe 2005, p. 310. 175. Antonacci, p. 112. 176. Zugibe 2005, p. 311. 177. Ibid., p. 236. 178. Bennett, pp.
78–79. 179.
Ibid., p. 80. 180.
Zugibe 2005, p. 314.
181. Bennett, p. 80.
182. Zugibe 2005, p. 312. 183. Phillips, p. 594. 184. This Caesarea on the coast of Palestine is
not to be confused with Caesarea Philippi, north of the Sea of Galilee, or
Caesarea in Cappadocia, now in central-eastern Turkey. 185. Wilson 1978, p. 214;
Cross, “Edessa,” p. 444.
186. Wilson 2010, pp.
115–116. 187.
Translated by Ian Wilson 1978, pp. 235–251. 188. Wilson 1978, pp. 238–239. 189. “Story of the Image of
Edessa” in Wilson 1978, pp. 236–241. 190. Wilson 1978, p. 214. 191. Wilson 2010, pp.
140–141. 192. Ibid.,
p. 297. 193. Ibid.,
pp. 129–133.
194. Cross, “Constantine the Great,” p. 338. 195. Anonymous, “Chronology of Byzantine
Empire,” online, p. 1.
196. Wilson 2010, pp. 298–299, 142. 197. Ibid., pp. 128–129; Wilson 1978, p.
116. 198. Wilson 1978,
p. 81. 199. Wilson
2010, plate 17a. 200.
Wilson 1978, two illustrations and chart following p. 178. 201. Wilson 2010, plate
17d. 202. Ibid., plate
19a. 203. Wilson 1998, plate 36iii. 204. Wilson 2010, plate
20a. 205. Ibid., plate
20b. 206. Ibid., p.
299. 207. Ibid., p.
300. 208. Wilson 1978,
p. 126. 209. Wilson
2010, pp. 300–301.
210. Wilson 1978, p. 135. 211. Ibid., p. 135; Wilson 2010, p. 301. 212. Wilson 1978, pp. 136,
265. 213. Ibid., p.
142. 214. Wilson 2010,
p. 301. 215. Wilson
1978, p. 144. 216.
Ibid., pp. 144–145.
217. Wilson 2010, p. 301. 218. Wilson 1978, pp. 146–147; Anonymous,
“The Fourth Crusade,” online pp. 1–2. 219. Wilson 2010, p. 301. 220. Ibid., pp. 301–302;
Wilcox, pp. 224–225.
221. Wilson 2010, pp. 302, 198. 222. Ibid., p. 302. 223. Wilson 1978, pp. 165–167. 224. Wilson 2010, p.
303. 225. Ibid., p.
305. 226. Ibid., pp.
305–307. 227.
Ibid., pp. 306–307.
228. Ibid., pp. 308–309. 229. Moreno, p. 5; Bennett, p. 77. 230. Bennett, pp.
22–23. 231.
Ibid., pp. 28–29.
232. Ibid., pp.
31–32. 233.
Ibid., p. 38. 234.
Ibid., p. 45. 235.
Langer, p. 981. 236.
Bennett, pp. 196–197.
237. Ibid., p. 197.
238. Meacham, online p. 2. 239. Ibid., online p. 6. 240. Vignon, p. 44. 241. Anonymous, “Real Face
of Jesus?” DVD.
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BIBLE TRANSLATIONS: King James Bible—American
Bible Society version, 1932.
New International Version, 1978. New Revised Standard Version, 1989. Revised English Bible, with
the Apocrypha, 1992.